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HISTORIA10: EL ESPACIO SIDERAL. Espacio sideral es todo el espacio del universo no ocupado por cuerpos celestes y sus eventuales atmósferas. ES la porción vacía del universo, región en que predomina el vácuo. El término también puede ser utilizado para referirse a todo espacio que transcende la atmósfera terrestre.

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Espacio sideral

Origen: Wikipédia, la enciclopédia libre.

Espacio sideral es todo el espacio del universo no ocupado por cuerpos celestes y sus eventuales atmósferas. ES la porción vacía del universo, región en que predomina el vácuo. El término también puede ser utilizado para referirse a todo espacio que transcende la atmósfera terrestre.

Conceituações

En astronomía, se usa la denominação "espacio externo" o "espacio sideral" para hacer referencia a todo espacio que transcende el espacio englobado por la atmósfera terrestre. El espacio sideral es frecuentemente subdividido en tres subespaços:

  1. Espacio interplanetário - designación usada sobre todo para referirse a los espacios existentes entre los planetas de nuestro propio sistema solar. Por extensión, incluye las distancias entre los eventuales planetas de cualquier sistema estelar, inclusive el nuestro.
  2. Espacio interestelar - designación usada para referirse a la porciones de quasi-vácuo existentes entre las estrellas. Se refiere sobre todo a los espacios entre las estrellas de nuestra propia galáxia: la Vía Láctea.
  3. Espacio intergalático - designación usada para referirse a la desoladas vastidões existentes entre las galáxias. De la Vía Láctea a su galáxia-satélite más próxima, la gran Nube de Magalhães, esta vastidão es de la orden de 152 mil años-luz de distancia. Y, de la Vía Láctea hasta Andrômeda (que es su galáxia-hermana y de más próxima con forma y tamaño similares), son cerca de 2 millones y 200 mil años-luz de distancia. A partir de ahí, las distancias son inmensamente mayores.

 

Este artículo es un esbozo sobre Astronomía. Usted puede ayudar la Wikipédia expandindo-lo.
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HISTORIA10: BOOK OF JOSHUA. The Book of Joshua (Hebrew: Sefer Y'hoshua ספר יהושע‎) is the sixth book in the Hebrew Bible. This book stands as the first in the Former (or First) Prophets covering the history of Israel from the possession of the Promised Land to the Babylonian Captivity. The book of Joshua contains a history of the Israelites from the death of Moses to that of Joshua, and a description of the conquest of the land. Recent archaeological findings have, in some cases supported, and in others raised questions, over the historicity of the account.

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Book of Joshua

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This article is about the canonical book of the Hebrew Bible. For information on the Samaritan version, see Book of Joshua (Samaritan).
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The Book of Joshua (Hebrew: Sefer Y'hoshua ספר יהושע‎) is the sixth book in the Hebrew Bible. This book stands as the first in the Former (or First) Prophets covering the history of Israel from the possession of the Promised Land to the Babylonian Captivity. The book of Joshua contains a history of the Israelites from the death of Moses to that of Joshua, and a description of the conquest of the land. Recent archaeological findings have, in some cases supported, and in others raised questions, over the historicity of the account.

Contents

[hide]

[edit] Authorship

The Book of Joshua has been traditionally ascribed to Joshua himself by Talmudic tradition (Bava Batra 15a), medieval Jewish writers and by the Early Church Fathers. During the 18th century, the traditional account began to be questioned. Gerhard von Rad proposed that it continues the JE version of the Torah to form a six-book compilation called the hexateuch. Thus two of the main spliced-together narrative sources within it - Jahwist (J), and Elohist (E) - or at least deriving from sources from the same schools of thought as these. An alternative view was promoted by Martin Noth who suggested that Joshua forms more of a thematic continuity with the books Deuteronomy to Kings to form a Deuteronomic history.[1] In this view, Deuteronomists detached the Joshua section of this at some later point and embedded it within the Deuteronomic history, making a number of minor edits and framing additions (mainly Joshua 1, 21:43, 22:6, and 23).[2]

Currently, there is little consensus on the issue of authorship. Liberal scholars tend to hold that the book had many authors and was a product of the 8th and 7th centuries BC, with retouchings in the exilic period. Conservative scholars, in contrast, tend to hold that the book was written closer to the time of Joshua, though probably not during Joshua's lifetime. They do agree that the book was probably subject to some later limited redactions.[3][4][5][6][7]

According to Israeli archaeologists Israel Finkelstein and Amihai Mazar, "Most scholars of the last generation regard the conquest narratives as a literary work of a much later time designed to create a pan-Israelite national saga".[8]

[edit] Structure

The book essentially consists of three parts:

  1. The history of the conquest of the land (1-12).
  2. The allotment of the land to the different tribes, with the appointment of cities of refuge, the provision for the Levites (13-22), and the dismissal of the eastern tribes to their homes. This section has been compared to the Domesday Book of the Norman Conquest (though significantly shorter and not the work of one man).
  3. The farewell addresses of Joshua, with an account of his death (23, 24).

[edit] Summary of contents

Moses sends out twelve spies from Shittim to explore the city of Jericho. when they return only Caleb and Joshua give good reports, the other ten say the opposite. The Israelites disobeyed God and choose to listen to the ten other spies. They all took rocks and began to stone Caleb and Joshua. For Israel's punishment God made the whole generation who were born in Egypt wander in the wilderness for 40 years. Those born after the Exodus from Egypt could live and go into the Promised Land. The unfaithful Israelites who had come from Egypt would die before entering the Promised Land.

After Moses' death, Joshua, by virtue of his previous appointment as Moses' successor, received from God the command to cross the Jordan River. In execution of this order Joshua issues the requisite instructions to the stewards of the people for the crossing of the Jordan; and he reminds the Reubenites, Gadites, and the half of Manasseh of their pledge given to Moses to help their brethren.

Having re-iterated the duty to follow the mitzvah, Joshua orders the Israelites to set forth, and they leave Shittim. When they reach the Jordan River, Joshua states that the Ark will miraculously cross the Jordan. As soon as the Ark reaches the river, a miracle duly occurs, and the river stops flowing and rapidly dries up, so the priests carrying it halt, allowing the rest of the Israelites to cross as well. In commemoration of the event, Joshua orders two monuments to be erected: one in the river-bed; the other on the western bank, where the Israelites encamp.

Joshua and the Israelites crossing the Jordan

The Israelites are circumcised at Gibeath-Haaraloth (translating as hill of foreskins). Those who had been born in the desert had not been circumcised. The people are therefore circumcised, and the area is named Gilgal in memory (Gilgal sounds like Gallothi - I have removed, but is more likely to translate as circle of standing stones).

The Israelites then commence with the Battle of Jericho. Placing Jericho under siege, the Israelites circle it once a day for six days, and on the seventh make seven circuits, each time loudly blowing horns and shouting. On the final circuit, the walls cave in, and the inhabitants, except Rahab and her family, are slaughtered. A curse is pronounced against rebuilding the city.

Ai is surveyed and pronounced weak, so the Israelite army sends only a small group to attack them. However they are defeated, causing Joshua and the people to despair. But God announces that the people have sinned: someone has stolen some of the spoils from Jericho which are meant to be for the temple. Consequently the Israelites set out to discover the sinner by casting lots, whittling them down first by tribe (Judah), then clan (Zarhites), then sept (Zabdi), then finally detecting it as Achan. Achan admits having taken a costly Babylonian garment, besides silver and gold, and his confession is verified by the finding of the treasure buried in his tent, so Achan is taken into the valley of Achor, where he and his household are stoned and burned to death.

Afterwards, 30,000 Israelites set an ambush of Ai overnight, and in the morning another Israelite force attack and then feign retreat, drawing the forces of Ai far away from the city. When Joshua raises his lance, the 30,000 men preparing the ambush strike, while Joshua starts attacking again, thus surrounding Ai's forces. The entire city is burned and its inhabitants slaughtered. The king of Ai, however, is taken alive and delivered to Joshua. He is then impaled on a stake for public display before being buried outside the city gates, following Hebrew guidelines for the guilty. (see Deuteronomy 21.23).

Joshua erects an altar on Mount Ebal and makes offerings upon it and carves into it the law of Moses. The people are arranged into two sections, with one facing Ebal and the other facing Gerizim. They each read the blessings and curses specified in Deuteronomy as appropriate.

The Hivites fool the Israelites into thinking them foreigners and gain a non-aggression treaty from the Israelites. Even after its detection, the fraud is not abrogated, though the Hivites are punished by being treated as the lowest social class (referred to via the Hebrew idiom "hewers of wood and drawers of water for the altar of Yhwh").

An 1883 depiction of Joshua commanding the sun to stand still in the sky.

Adonizedek, king of Jerusalem, brings about an alliance of the "five kings of the Amorites" (the kings of Hebron, Jarmuth, Lachish, and Eglon, and himself), and they besiege the Hivites in Gibeon, whom they perceive as traitors. The Hivites implore Joshua's help, and so he launches a surprise attack following a night march, causing the Amorites to panic and flee as far as Beth-horon. A poem is quoted from the Book of Jasher, which states that the sun stood still at Gibeon, and the moon in the valley of Ajalon, in order that Joshua could complete the battle. Despite the five kings' cowardly attempt at avoiding retribution by hiding inside a cave, they are discovered and trapped there until their army has been completely obliterated. Afterwards, the kings are brought to Joshua, who first humiliates them, then orders their death and has them impaled for public display. At sunset, the bodies are thrown back into the cave from which they hid, and the entrance sealed.

Jabin, king of Hazor, his army, and his vassals, rendezvous at Merom. Joshua, however, executes a swift attack and is able to defeat them. Pursuing them to a great distance, he hamstrings their horses, burns their chariots, captures Hazor, slaughters its inhabitants, and burns it to the ground. Lesser royal residences are also captured and their inhabitants slaughtered, although the cities on the hill remain.

[edit] Historicity

See also: Battle of Jericho

There is a great deal of debate concerning the historicity of the accounts in Joshua. The archeological evidence here, as with most biblical issues, is widely open to interpretation. As such, scholars hold widely differing views, even over the same facts and evidences.[3][4][5][6][7] Conservative scholars and archeologists see much of the archeological data confirming many of the claims in Joshua, although admit that the data is uncertain in various areas.[3][4][5][6][7] According to Israeli archaeologists Israel Finkelstein and Amihai Mazar, "It is now accepted by all that archaeology in fact contradicts the Biblical account of the Israelite conquest as a discreet historical event led by one leader".[8][9][10][11][12][13]

[edit] Liberal scholars

Liberal scholars note that archaeologists have raised questions about the timing of the overthrow of the two cities Lachish and Hazor, and liberal scholars believe that the current evidence does not support the biblical account that Joshua led campaigns against both cities (Josh. 10:31-32; 11:10-11) since 100 years separate the destruction of Hazor from that of Lachish.[14][15] According to these scholars, archeological evidence shows that many cities that play key roles in the conquest narratives (primarily Jericho, Ai, Hormah, Arad, Jarmuth, Heshbon and Gibeon) were not occupied during Joshua's time(ca. 1200 BCE).[16][17] These sites suffered destruction shortly before 1400 BCE, two centuries before the Israelites came on the scene.[18]

Liberal and conservative scholars both have noted that the region had been in a state of turmoil two centuries before Joshua's time.[3][5][6][7] This poorly understood late Bronze Age collapse of civilization in the eastern Mediterranean was at least partly due to the breakup of the Hittite Empire and the campaigns of the Sea Peoples (who often burnt cities to the ground and sometimes resettled the towns they destroyed). Archeologists have discovered destruction layers in many of these cities that overlap this widespread collapse. It is more plausible, from the point of view of liberal scholars, for this regional collapse to have been responsible for the destruction of the cities, rather than an invasion of Israelites under Joshua's leadership lasting only about five years.[15][19]

In addition, liberal scholars argue that the archaeological evidence shows a smooth cultural continuity in this period, rather than the destruction of one culture (Canaanite) and replacement by another (Israelite), and believe that the Israelites were simply an emergent subculture within Canaanite society.[19] From the point of view of liberal scholars, the author(s) of Joshua combined a series of independent traditions about battles and destruction of various cities at differing times, in order to create a favorable narrative.[20]

They also see a contradiction between the stories of conquest in Joshua and Judges 1. According to Joshua 10:29-40; 11:14-23; 12:7-8; 21:43-45, Joshua conquered the whole land of Canaan, "totally destroyed all who breathed" and "left no survivors". These conquests divided among the tribes in Joshua's lifetime (Joshua 10:40;11:14-23;21:43-45). According to Judges 1 only part of the country was conquered "after the death of Joshua" and the Canaanites were still a group to be reckoned with.[12][21][22]

[edit] Conservative scholars

Conservative scholars[3][4][5][6][7], in contrast, tend to defend the historicity of the book's account, although they are usually open to assumptions that the account is not completely objective.[23][24][25] They note that it is known that during this period waves of migrants, mostly from the north, were coming into Canaan and settling in recently destroyed towns. They point to this, as well as to several indications from the book of Joshua, to argue that while some towns may have experienced invasion earlier, they were by Joshua's time partly repopulated but too small to leave behind much evidence.[4] The book of Joshua, for example, suggests that several of these cities (such as Jericho and Ai) were sparsely populated at the time and in a weakened state. Jericho is believed to have had only a few thousand inhabitants, and the book of Joshua suggests that Jericho's wall was so make-shift that it lacked basic anti-siege equipment (the Israelites paraded outside of the city walls for a week without encountering any resistance). They also note that archeological evidence from Hazor, which appears from Joshua to have been the largest and most important Canaanite city at the time (thus the most likely to leave behind evidence), agrees with the account in Joshua. Hazor has been shown to have been destroyed around 1250 BCE, which by most accounts was the time of Joshua.[4][14][15] Many conservative scholars, such as Richard Hess, believe the archeological evidence to be inconclusive, supporting the account in Joshua in some cases, while failing to do so in others.[4]

Also, they don't see a conflict between Joshua and Judges because Joshua never claims that Israel totally displaced the Canaanites. They also note that Joshua mentions that a large number of Canaanites remained even after the conquest was complete. According to Joshua 13:1, "When Joshua was old and well advanced in years, the LORD said to him, "You are very old, and there are still very large areas of land to be taken over."[3][4][5][6][7] In addition, Joshua is widely viewed to be using hyperbole when describing the campaigns. These scholars hold that this should not be taken as a claim of complete destruction (i.e. a claim that the Israelites "slew all who breathed" before noting "and the rest escaped"). König agrees that the author uses "natural hyperboles". More recently, Younger has compared the accounts of the conquest in Joshua 9-12 to other Near Eastern texts with descriptions of conquests which he argues uses similar hyperbole.[26]

[edit] Ethical issues

One difficulty arises out of the numerous commands from God recorded in the book for the Israelites to destroy people and animals in the land that they are occupying. This is related to the concept of cherem (set apart for God, or set under a ban) in which entire cities (such as Jericho; see Joshua 6:17-19) are recorded as commanded to be devoted to destruction.

Some theologians (including many adherents of liberal theology) see this as an ethically unjustifiable order to commit genocide, which is inconsistent with the overall view in the Hebrew and Christian scriptures of God as a loving, compassionate Creator. They see it as a theological polemic, with the majority of events invented during or after the Babylonian captivity, to encourage faithfulness to the Jewish creed at a time when it was being threatened. For instance, Morton says that Joshua "should be understood as a rite of ancient peoples (Israel among them) whereby within the context of their times, they attempted to please their God (or the gods)".[27]

Others, including many conservative theologians who see the book as a historically accurate account written during or soon after the life of Joshua, explain the cruelty of the Israelites as God's way of making an example of nations that engaged in abhorrent practices. Although the book gives no explicit justification for the commands to kill, Deuteronomy 9:4 indicates that this is on account of the "wickedness of those nations". Some theologians have pointed to evidence of practices such as child sacrifice, although others argue that it may have been polemic invented at a later date in order to justify the act of extermination.[28] Hence they believe that the message of Joshua was intended not only for the surrounding nations, but for the Israelites as well (e.g. the stoning of Achan due to his transgression of the cherem).

A Christian alternative viewpoint is to cite progressive revelation in which God reveals himself partially to Joshua and the Jews, but (in due time) fully through Jesus Christ.[29] Proponents of this view argue that the description of war in the book of Joshua was culturally conditioned. For instance, Chapman suggests that the accounts of war and genocide are "the gradual process by which God works in the history of a particular people for whom war is an essential part of religion and culture".[30] The Mennonite scholar John Howard Yoder suggests that the concept of cherem was unique in relation to the morality of the time not in its violence, but in ensuring that "war does not become a source of immediate enrichment through plunder",[31] and hence was the beginning of a trajectory that would lead ultimately to the teaching of nonviolence.

[edit] See also

[edit] Notes

  1. ^ John van Seters (2006), The edited Bible: the curious history of the "editor" in biblical criticims, pp. 260-269
  2. ^ Ronald F. Youngblood, F. F. Bruce, R. K. Harrison and Thomas Nelson Publishers, “Joshua, Book of,” in, Nelson's New Illustrated Bible Dictionary, Rev. Ed. of: Nelson's Illustrated Bible Dictionary.; Includes Index. (Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 1995).
  3. ^ a b c d e f "Introduction to the Old Testament", chapter on Joshua, by T. Longman and R. Dillard, Zondervan Books (2006)
  4. ^ a b c d e f g h "Joshua, an Introduction and Commentary, by Richard Hess, Inter-Varsity press (1996)
  5. ^ a b c d e f "The Book of Joshua", Marten Woudstra, Eerdmans Publishing Co, (1981)
  6. ^ a b c d e f "World Biblical Commentary", Volume 7-Joshua, by Trent Butler, Word Books, 1983
  7. ^ a b c d e f "Anchor Bible", chapter on Joshua, by Robert Boling, Doubleday & Co. (1982)
  8. ^ a b The quest for the historical Israel: debating archaeology and the history of early Israel : invited lectures delivered at the Sixth Biennial Colloquium of the International Institute for Secular Humanistic Judaism, Detroit, October 2005, Israel Finkelstein, Amihai Mazar, Brian B. Schmidt, p. 62
  9. ^ Who Were the Early Israelites and Where Did They Come From? William G. Dever, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2006
  10. ^ The biblical world, Volume 2, John Barton, 45, 2004
  11. ^ How to read the Bible, 2005, Marc Zvi Brettler, pp. 95-99
  12. ^ a b Biblical peoples and ethnicity: an archaeological study of Egyptians, Ann E. Killebrew, pp. 152-154, 2005
  13. ^ The Oxford guide to people and places of the Bible, Bruce M. Metzger, Michael Coogan, P. Kyle McCarter, p. 39
  14. ^ a b Joshua, Judges, and Ruth, Carolyn Pressler, pp. 74-75
  15. ^ a b c According to Joshua 14:7-10;10:40;21:43-45, it took Joshua five years to conquer the whole land of Canaan
  16. ^ Mercer Dictionary of the Bible, 1998, p. 166
  17. ^ The quest for the historical Israel: debating archaeology and the history of early Israel, Israel Finkelstein, Amihai Mazar, Brian B. Schmidt, p. 61, 2005
  18. ^ Mercer Dictionary of the Bible, 1990, p. 167
  19. ^ a b Israel Finkelstein, The Bible Unearthed
  20. ^ Sturgis, Matthew (2001). It Ain't Necessarily So. Headline Publishing Group. ISBN 0747245061. 
  21. ^ International Standard Bible Encyclopedia: E-J, Geoffrey W. Bromiley, p. 1136
  22. ^ The Old Testament world, By John Rogerson, Philip R. Davies, 1989, p. 358
  23. ^ E. König, "Judges, Book of," in: A Dictionary of the Bible, ed. James Hastings, 1898
  24. ^ Kaufmann, Yehezkel (1953). The biblical account of the conquest of Canaan. Magnes Press. 
  25. ^ orr, James (1906). The Problem of the Old Testament Considered with Reference to Recent Criticism. Charles Scribner. 
  26. ^ K. Lawson Younger Jr. (1990). Ancient Conquest Accounts. A Study in Ancient Near Eastern and Biblical History Writing. JSOT Supplement 98.
  27. ^ Morton, pp. 324-325
  28. ^ John, Day (2002). Yahweh and the gods and goddesses of Canaan. Sheffield Academic Press. ISBN 1-85075-986-3. 
  29. ^ Dodd, C.H. (1952). The authority of the bible. Nisbet & Co.. 
  30. ^ Colin Chapman, "Holy War", in Zondervan Handbook to the Bible (1999), ed. David Alexander
  31. ^ Yoder, John Howard. (1971). "If Abraham Is Our Father." In The Original Revolution: Essays on Christian Pacifism. Wipf and Stock.

[edit] References

  • Morton, William H. Joshua. The Broadman Bible Commentary, Vol. 2. Ed. Clifton J. Allen, et al. Nashville: Broadman Press, 1970.
  • Halley, Henry H. Halley's Bible Handbook. Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House, 1927, 1965.
  • Mazar, Amihai. The Archaeology of the land of the Bible. New York: Doubleday, 1990.
  • Anati, Emmanuel. The Time of Exodus In the Light of Archaeological Testimony, Epigraphy and Palaeoclimate. Har Karkom, a guide to major sites, Capo di Ponte [Edizioni del Centro], 2005.

[edit] External links

[edit] Translations

This article incorporates text from Easton's Bible Dictionary (1897), a publication now in the public domain. This article incorporates text from the 1901–1906 Jewish Encyclopedia, a publication now in the public domain.

Preceded by
Deuteronomy		Hebrew BibleFollowed by
Judges
Christian Old Testament
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Joshua"
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HISTORIA10: JOSHUA. Joshua (Hebrew: יְהוֹשֻׁעַ‎ Y'hoshuʿa; Greek: Ἰησοῦς, Arabic: يوشع بن نون‎ Yusha ʿ ibn Nūn), is the central character in the Hebrew Bible's Book of Joshua. According to that book, he became the leader of the Israelite tribes after the death of Moses. His story is told chiefly in the books Exodus, Numbers and Joshua. According to the Bible, Joshua's name was Hoshea the son of Nun, of the tribe of Ephraim, but that Moses called him Joshua, (Numbers 13:16) and that is the name by which he is commonly known. He was born in Egypt prior to the Exodus, and was probably the same age as Caleb, with whom he is occasionally associated.

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Joshua

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article is about the figure from the Hebrew Bible. For the Biblical book, see Book of Joshua. For other uses, see Joshua (disambiguation).
Joshua praying for God to stop the Sun.
Judges in the Bible

In the Book of Joshua: Joshua
In the Book of Judges: Othniel • Ehud • Shamgar • Deborah • Barak† • Gideon • Abimelech† • Tola • Jair •Jephthah • Ibzan • Elon • Abdon • Samson
In First Samuel: Eli • Samuel

†Not explicitly described as a judge

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Biblical longevity
NameAgeLXX
Methuselah969969
Jared962962
Noah950950
Adam930930
Seth912912
Kenan910910
Enos905905
Mahalalel895895
Lamech777753
Shem600600
Eber464404
Cainan—460
Arpachshad438465
Salah433466
Enoch365365
Peleg239339
Reu239339
Serug230330
Job210?210?
Terah205205
Isaac180180
Abraham175175
Nahor148304
Jacob147147
Esau147?147?
Ishmael137137
Levi137137
Amram137137
Kohath133133
Laban130+130+
Deborah130+130+
Sarah127127
Miriam125+125+
Aaron123123
Rebecca120+120+
Moses120120
Joseph110110
Joshua110110


Joshua (Hebrew: יְהוֹשֻׁעַ‎ Y'hoshuʿa; Greek: Ἰησοῦς, Arabic: يوشع بن نون‎ Yusha ʿ ibn Nūn), is the central character in the Hebrew Bible's Book of Joshua. According to that book, he became the leader of the Israelite tribes after the death of Moses. His story is told chiefly in the books Exodus, Numbers and Joshua. According to the Bible, Joshua's name was Hoshea the son of Nun, of the tribe of Ephraim, but that Moses called him Joshua, (Numbers 13:16) and that is the name by which he is commonly known. He was born in Egypt prior to the Exodus, and was probably the same age as Caleb, with whom he is occasionally associated.

He was one of the twelve spies of Israel sent by Moses to explore the land of Canaan. (Numbers 13:1-16) After the death of Moses, he led the Israelite tribes in the conquest of Canaan, and allocated the land to the tribes. According to conventional Bible chronology, Joshua lived between 1450–1370 BC, or sometime in the late Bronze Age. According to Joshua 24:29, Joshua died at the age of 110.

Joshua also holds a position of respect to Muslims; the Shi'ah believe he was an Imam. Despite not being canonized, he is considered by some to be the patron saint of spies and intelligence professionals.[citation needed]

Contents

[hide]

[edit] Name

The English name Joshua is a rendering of the Hebrew language יהושע (sometimes יהושוע), "Yehoshua", meaning "Yahweh is salvation", from the Hebrew root ישע, "salvation", "to deliver/be liberated", or "to be victorious".[1][2] The vocalization of the second name component may be read as Hoshea (הוֹשֵׁעַ) - the name used in the Torah before Moses added the divine name (Numbers 13:16).[3]

"Jesus" is the English of the Greek transliteration of "Yehoshua" via Aramaic. In the Septuagint, all instances of "Yehoshua" are rendered as "Ἰησοῦς" (Iēsoūs/Jesus), the closest Greek pronunciation of the Aramaic ישוע, "Yeshua" (Hebrew word #3443 in Strong's, Neh. 8:17).[4][5]

[edit] Narrative of Joshua

See also: History of ancient Israel and Judah

[edit] Joshua and the Exodus

As Moses' apprentice, Joshua was a major figure in the events of the Exodus. He accompanied Moses part of the way when he ascended Mount Sinai to receive the Ten Commandments. (Exodus 32:17) He was one of the twelve spies sent by Moses to explore and report on the land of Canaan (Numbers 13:16-17), and only he and Caleb gave an encouraging report, a reward for which would be that only these two of the spies would enter the promised land (Numbers 14:23-24).

He was commander at their first battle after exiting Egypt, against the Amalekites in Rephidim (Exodus 17:8-16), in which they were victorious.

"The Children of Israel Crossing the Jordan" by Gustave Doré (d. 1883)

According to Joshua 1:1-9, Moses appointed Joshua to succeed him as leader of the Israelites. The first part of the book of Joshua covers the period when he led the conquest of Canaan.

[edit] Conquest of Canaan

At the Jordan River, the waters parted, as they had for Moses at the Red Sea. The first battle after the crossing of the Jordan was the Battle of Jericho. Joshua led the destruction of Jericho, then moved on to Ai, a small neighboring city to the west. However, they were defeated with thirty-six Israelite deaths. The defeat was attributed to Achan taking an "accursed thing" from Jericho; and was followed by Achan and his family and animals being stoned to death to restore God's favor. Joshua then went to defeat Ai.

The Israelites faced an alliance of Amorite kings from Jerusalem, Hebron, Jarmuth, Lachish, and Eglon. At Gibeon Joshua asked God to cause the sun and moon to stand still, so that he could finish the battle in daylight. This event is most notable because "there was no day like that before it or after it, that the LORD hearkened unto the voice of a man: for the LORD fought for Israel. (Joshua 10:14) From there on, Joshua was able to lead the Israelites to several victories, securing much of the land of Canaan.

[edit] Division of the land

12 staemme israels cs.png
See also: Tribal allotments of Israel

In the second part of the book of Joshua (Ch 13 onwards), the extent of the land to be conquered is defined (Numbers 34:1-15) and the allocation of the land among the tribes of Israel. At that time, much of this land was still unconquered. The tribes of Reuben, Gad and half of Manasseh received land east of the Jordan (Numbers 34:14-15) while the other nine and a half tribes received land on the west of the Jordan.

[edit] Death

When he was "old and well advanced in years" [6] Joshua convened the elders and chiefs of the Israelites and exhorted them to have no fellowship with the native population because it could lead them to be unfaithful to God.[7] At a general assembly of the clans at Shechem, he took leave of the people, admonishing them to be loyal to their God, who had been so mightily manifested in the midst of them. As a witness of their promise to serve God, Joshua set up a great stone under an oak by the sanctuary of God. Soon afterward he died, at the age of 110, and was buried at Timnath Serah, in the hill country of Ephraim, north of Mount Gaash.[8]

[edit] Historicity

Main article: Historicity of the Book of Joshua

Joshua's narrative is ascribed to Joshua himself by Bava Batra 15a (Talmud) and early church fathers. In 1943 Martin Noth published an argument that behind Joshua and other books was a unified "Deuteronomistic history", composed in the early part of the Babylonian captivity (not long after 606 BCE); Noth's speculative practice of conjecturing the nonextant tradition has the weakness that "no two scholars ever propose the same tradition history for the stories of the Pentateuch".[9] Most scholars who follow the documentary hypothesis today believe in some such composite, containing the epic history of the premonarchical period, which William Dever calls "largely 'propaganda,' designed to give theological legitimacy to a party of nationalist ultra-orthodox reformers."[10] Gerhard von Rad, another developer of the hypothesis, adds that "comparison of the ancient Near Eastern treaties, especially ... in the 14th and 13th centuries BC, with passages in the OT has revealed so many things in common between the two, particularly in the matter of form, that there must be some connection between these suzerainty treaties and the [OT]."[11] Kenneth Kitchen states that nearly all treaties in this period follow the pattern of Deuteronomy closely, while first-millennium treaties contrarily but consistently place "witnesses" earlier and omit prologue and blessing sections, requiring classification of the Sinai covenant and its renewals in Joshua with the fourteenth or thirteenth century rather than the sixth.[12]

Although Egypt did not have its former grasp on Canaan, there was a strong presence into the twelfth century, and Philistia took greater control of the southern coastal plain then also (Joshua 13:2 mentions the Philistines).[13] Israel was not mentioned extra-Biblically until the Merneptah Stele, erected in 1209 BC,[14] identifying a people in the central highlands of the region.[15] Although only villagers have left sufficient remains, over 300 central settlements and more fringe settlements (representing 40,000 villagers) date to Iron Age I.[16] Israelite sites are identified by being notably absent of pig bones, sometimes interpreted as indicating distinct ethnic identity, and via differing ceramics and more agrarian settlement plans.[17] The village populations of up to 400 lived by farming and herding and were largely self-sufficient.[18] The Book of Joshua explicitly says that Canaan was not completely conquered during Joshua's time.[19][20][21][22][23] The question of the degrees of conquest and/or assimilation may not be answered with certainty, as both sides cite a large body of archaeological and other evidence.[24]

[edit] Views

[edit] In rabbinical literature

Joshua and the Israelite people, Karolingischer Buchmaler, c.840

In rabbinic Jewish literature Joshua is regarded as a faithful, humble, deserving, wise man. Biblical verses illustrative of these qualities and of their reward are applied to him. "He that waits on his master shall be honored" (Pro. xxvii. 18) is construed as a reference to Joshua (Midrash Numbers Rabbah xii.), as is also the first part of the same verse, "Whoso keepes the fig-tree shall eat the fruit thereof" (Midrash Yalk., Josh. 2; Numbers Rabbah xii. 21). That "honor shall uphold the humble in spirit" (Pro. xxix. 23) is proved by Joshua's victory over Amalek (Midrash Numbers Rabbah xiii). Not the sons of Moses — as Moses himself had expected — but Joshua was appointed successor to the son of Amram (Midrash Numbers Rabbah xii). Moses was shown how Joshua reproved that Othniel (Yalḳ., Num. 776). Joshua's manliness recommended him for this high post. David referred to him in Psalms lxxxvii. 25, though without mentioning the name, lest dissensions should arise between his sons and those of his brothers (Yalḳ., quoting Sifre).

[edit] In Islam

See also: Yusha ibn Nun and Prophets of Islam

Yusha ibn Nun (Joshua) holds more importance for Shia Muslims than for Sunnis because he is held up as the Imam after Musa (Moses) after the death of Harun (Aaron). As such, he is frequently mentioned in works on theology. Islam recognizes Joshua as the young man who accompanied Moses when they traveled in search of a knowledgeable servant of God (who is considered by some scholars of Islam to be a prophet, others just a man of knowledge), called Al-Khidr. Joshua, accompanying Moses on a journey, lost the fish which they had kept in a basket during several days' travel. On that spot they both met Al-Khidr who reluctantly let Moses travel with him, during which time they came across many things. The Qur'an doesn't refer to Joshua by name(18:61).

In Turkey, it's believed that his tomb is in Istanbul, on the Asian side of the Bosphorus. The sacred place known as Yuşa Tepesi (Joshua's Hill) is revered and visited by the locals.

In the Quran Joshua is mentioned in the 5th Surah of the Quran (5:22-26). The two men mentioned here are Caleb and Joshua: "Remember Moses said to his people: "O my people! Call in remembrance the favour of Allah unto you, when He produced prophets among you, made you kings, and gave you what He had not given to any other among the peoples. "O my people! Enter the holy land which Allah hath assigned unto you, and turn not back ignominiously, for then will ye be overthrown, to your own ruin." They said: "O Moses! In this land are a people of exceeding strength: Never shall we enter it until they leave it: if (once) they leave, then shall we enter." (But) among (their) Allah-fearing men were two on whom Allah had bestowed His grace: They said: "Assault them at the (proper) Gate: when once ye are in, victory will be yours; But on Allah put your trust if ye have faith." They said: "O Moses! while they remain there, never shall we be able to enter, to the end of time. Go thou, and thy Lord, and fight ye two, while we sit here (and watch)." He said: "O my Lord! I have power only over myself and my brother: so separate us from this rebellious people!" Allah said: "Therefore will the land be out of their reach for forty years: In distraction will they wander through the land: But sorrow thou not over these rebellious people"

[edit] In later literature

In the Divine Comedy Joshua's spirit appears to Dante in the Heaven of Mars, where he is grouped with the other "warriors of the faith."

Baroque composer Georg Frideric Handel composed an oratorio "Joshua" in 1747.

Composer Franz Waxman composed an oratorio "Joshua" in 1959.

For a punning take on "Joshua, son of Nun," see the 1973 political thriller Joshua Son of None.

In the literary tradition of medieval Europe, Joshua is known as one of the Nine Worthies.

Joshua is a main protagonist in Matthew Woodring Stover's novel Jericho Moon.

[edit] Yahrtzeit

Joshua's Tomb in Kifl Hares, April 2007

The annual commemoration of Joshua's yahrtzeit is marked on the 26th of Nisan on the Hebrew calendar. Thousands make the pilgrimage to Kifl Hares on the preceding night.

[edit] See also

[edit] References

  1. ^ A Hebrew and English Lexicon of the Old Testament Francis Brown, with S.R. Driver and C.A. Briggs, based on the lexicon of William Gesenius. Oxford: Clarendon Press. p. 221 & 446
  2. ^ Fausset's Bible Dictionary
  3. ^ Joshua, New Bible Dictionary, second edition. 1987. Douglas JD, Hillyer N, eds., Tyndale House Publishers, Inc., Wheaton, IL, USA ISBN 0842346678
  4. ^ cf Numbers 13:16 LXX καὶ ὲπωνὸμασεν Μωυσῆς τὸν Αὐσῆ υἱὸν Ναυῆ Ἰησοῦν (and Moses named Hosea, son of Nun, Jesus)
  5. ^ The High Priest Jesus in Zechariah 3 LXX
  6. ^ Joshua 23:1-2
  7. ^ Joshua 23:7-8, 23:12-13
  8. ^ Joshua 24:29-30
  9. ^ Graham, M.P, and McKenzie, Steven L., "The Hebrew Bible today: an introduction to critical issues" (Westminster John Knox Press, 1998) pp. 59, 11–2.
  10. ^ Dever, William, "What Did the Biblical Writers Know and When Did They Know It?" (Eerdmans, 2001) 2001, p. 100.
  11. ^ von Rad, Gerhard (1962). Old Testament Theology: 2 Volumes (English ed.). Edinburgh; London: Oliver and Boyd. p. 132. http://www.freewebs.com/professor_enigma/evidencesi.htm. 
  12. ^ Kitchen, K. A. (1966). The Ancient Orient and the Old Testament. Chicago: InterVarsity Press. pp. 92–8. 
  13. ^ Golden, Jonathan M., "Ancient Canaan and Israel: An Introduction" (Oxford University Press, 2004) pp. 155–6, 157–8.
  14. ^ Lawrence E. Stager, Forging an Identity: The Emergence of Ancient Israel, in Coogan 1998, p. 91.
  15. ^ Niels Peter Lemche, "The Israelites in History and Tradition" (Westminster John Knox, 1998) pp. 37–8.
  16. ^ Paula McNutt, "Reconstructing the Society of Ancient Israel" pp. 69–70.
  17. ^ Killebrew 2005, p. 176, 13.
  18. ^ Miller, Robert D., "Chieftains of the Highland Clans: A History of Israel in the 12th and 11th centuries BC" (Eerdmans, 2005) pp. 98.
  19. ^ Dever 2003.
  20. ^ Barton 2004, p. 45.
  21. ^ Brettler 2005, pp. 95–9.
  22. ^ The Oxford guide to people and places of the Bible, Bruce M. Metzger, Michael Coogan, P. Kyle McCarter, p. 39
  23. ^ Hess 1996.
  24. ^ "Introduction to the Old Testament", chapter on Joshua, by T. Longman and R. Dillard, Zondervan Books (2006)

[edit] External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Joshua
  • Joshua, an Introduction and Commentary, by Richard Hess, Inter-Varsity press (1996)

 

Joshua
Preceded by
Moses		Judge of IsraelSucceeded by
Othniel
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joshua"
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HISTORIA10: RAIN MAN. Rain Man is a 1988 American comedy-drama film written by Barry Morrow and Ronald Bass and directed by Barry Levinson. It tells the story of an abrasive and selfish yuppie, Charlie Babbitt, who discovers that his estranged father has died and bequeathed all of his multimillion-dollar estate to his other son, Raymond, a man with autism of whose existence Charlie was unaware.

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Rain Man

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For the AOL publishing language, see Rainman.
Rain Man

Theatrical release poster
Directed byBarry Levinson
Produced byMark Johnson
Screenplay byBarry Morrow
Ronald Bass
Story byBarry Morrow
StarringDustin Hoffman
Tom Cruise
Valeria Golino
Music byHans Zimmer
CinematographyJohn Seale
Editing byStu Linder
Distributed byUnited Artists
Release date(s)December 16, 1988 (1988-12-16)
Running time133 minutes
CountryUnited States
LanguageEnglish
Budget$25 million
Gross revenue$354,825,435

Rain Man is a 1988 American comedy-drama film written by Barry Morrow and Ronald Bass and directed by Barry Levinson. It tells the story of an abrasive and selfish yuppie, Charlie Babbitt, who discovers that his estranged father has died and bequeathed all of his multimillion-dollar estate to his other son, Raymond, a man with autism of whose existence Charlie was unaware.

The film stars Tom Cruise as Charlie Babbitt, Dustin Hoffman as Raymond Babbitt, and Valeria Golino as Charlie's girlfriend, Susanna. Morrow created the character of Raymond after meeting Kim Peek, a real-life savant; his characterization was based on both Peek and Bill Sackter, a good friend of Morrow who was the subject of Bill, an earlier film that Morrow wrote.[1] Rain Man received overwhelmingly positive reviews at the time of its release, praising Hoffman's role and the wit and sophistication of the screenplay.

The film won four Oscars at the 61st Academy Awards (March 1989), including Best Picture, Best Original Screenplay, Best Director, and Best Actor in a leading role for Hoffman. Its crew received an additional four nominations.[2]

Contents

[hide]

[edit] Plot

Charlie Babbitt (Cruise), a Los Angeles car dealer in his mid-twenties, is in the middle of importing four grey market Lamborghinis. The deal is being threatened by the EPA, and if Charlie cannot meet its requirements he will lose a significant amount of money. After some quick subterfuge with an employee, Charlie leaves for a weekend trip to Palm Springs with his girlfriend, Susanna (Golino).

Charlie's trip is cancelled by news that his estranged father, Sanford Babbitt, has died. Charlie travels to Cincinnati, Ohio, to settle the estate, where he learns an undisclosed trustee is inheriting $3 million on behalf of an unnamed beneficiary, while all he is to receive is a classic Buick Roadmaster convertible and several prize rose bushes. Eventually he learns the money is being directed to a mental institution which is the home of his autistic brother Raymond Babbitt (Hoffman), of whose existence Charlie had not previously known. This leads Charlie to ask the question that permeates the movie: "Why didn't somebody tell me I had a brother?"

Although Raymond has autism, he also has superb recall, but little understanding of subject matter. He is frightened by change and adheres to strict routines (for example, his continual repetition of the "Who's on First?" sketch). Except when he is in distress, he shows little emotional expression and avoids eye contact.

Numbed by learning that he has a brother and determined to get what he believes is his fair share of the Babbitt estate, Charlie takes Raymond on what becomes a cross-country car trip (due to Raymond's fear of flying) back to Los Angeles to meet with his attorneys. Charlie intends to start a custody battle in order to get Raymond's doctor, Dr. Gerald R. Bruner (Gerald R. Molen), to settle out of court for half of Sanford Babbitt's estate so that the mental institution can maintain custody of Raymond.

During the course of the journey, Charlie learns about Raymond's autism, which he initially believes is curable — resulting in his frequent frustration with his brother's antics. He also learns about how his brother came to be separated from his family, as a result of an accident when he was left alone with Charlie when Charlie was a baby. Raymond also sings "I Saw Her Standing There" by the Beatles like he did when Charlie was young. Charlie proves to be sometimes shallow and exploitative, as when he learns that Raymond has an excellent memory and takes him to Las Vegas to win money at blackjack by counting cards. However, towards the end of their trip Charlie finds himself becoming protective of Raymond, and grows to truly love him.

Charlie finally meets with his attorney to try to get his share of his inheritance, but then decides that he no longer cares about the money and really just wants to have custody of his brother. However, at a meeting with a court-appointed psychiatrist and Dr. Bruner, Raymond is unable to decide exactly what he wants. Eventually, the psychiatrist presses Raymond to make the decision, upsetting him and leading Charlie to request that the doctor back off. Raymond is allowed to go back home to Cincinnati. Charlie, who has gained a new brother and mellowed considerably, promises Raymond as he boards an Amtrak that he'll visit in two weeks.

[edit] Cast

[edit] Production

A now-abandoned gas station and general store in Cogar, Oklahoma was used in a scene from the film.

Roger Birnbaum was the first studio executive to give the film a green light; he did so immediately after Barry Morrow pitched the story. Birnbaum received "special thanks" in the film's credits.[2]

Agents at CAA sent the script to Hoffman and Bill Murray, envisioning Murray in the title role and Hoffman in the role eventually portrayed by Cruise.[1] Martin Brest, Steven Spielberg, and Sydney Pollack were directors also involved in the film.[3]

Principal photography included nine weeks of filming on location.[4]

Almost all of the principal photography occurred during the 1988 Writers Guild of America strike; one key scene that was affected by the lack of writers was the film's final scene.[1] Bass delivered his last rough cut of the script only hours before the strike started and spent no time on the set.[3]

[edit] Reception

[edit] Reviews

Rain Man was overall positively received by critics, with a 87% approval rating on Rotten Tomatoes with an average score of 7.7/10.[5] Vincent Canby of The New York Times called Rain Man a "becomingly modest, decently thought-out, sometimes funny film"; Hoffman's performance was a "display of sustained virtuosity . . . [which] makes no lasting connections with the emotions. Its end effect depends largely on one's susceptibility to the sight of an actor acting nonstop and extremely well, but to no particularly urgent dramatic purpose."[6] Canby considered the "film's true central character" to be "the confused, economically, and emotionally desperate Charlie, beautifully played by Mr. Cruise."[6]

Amy Dawes of Variety wrote that "one of the year's most intriguing film premises ... is given uneven, slightly off-target treatment"; she calls the road scenes "hastily, loosely written, with much extraneous screen time," but admired the last third of the film, calling it a depiction of "two very isolated beings" who "discover a common history and deep attachment."[4]

One of the film's harshest reviews came from New Yorker magazine critic Pauline Kael: "Everything in this movie is fudged ever so humanistically, in a perfunctory, low-pressure way. And the picture has its effectiveness: people are crying at it. Of course they're crying at it — it's a piece of wet kitsch."[7]

[edit] Box office

Rain Man debuted on December 16, 1988, and was the second on the weekend's box office (behind Twins), with $7 million.[8] It reached the first spot on the December 30–January 2 weekend, finishing 1988 with $42 million.[9] The film would end up becoming the highest-grossing film of 1988 with $172 million (though most of its gross was garnered in 1989, unlike second place Who Framed Roger Rabbit).[10]

[edit] Awards

Rain Man won Academy Awards for Best Picture, Best Actor in a Leading Role (Dustin Hoffman), Best Director, and Best Writing, Original Screenplay. It was nominated for Best Art Direction-Set Decoration, Best Cinematography (John Seale), Best Film Editing, and Best Music, Original Score.

The film also won a People's Choice Award as the "Favorite Dramatic Motion Picture."[2]

[edit] Effect on popular culture

Rain Man 's portrayal of the main character's condition has been seen as inaugurating a common and incorrect media stereotype that people on the autism spectrum typically have savant skills, and references to Rain Man, in particular Dustin Hoffman's performance, have become a popular shorthand for autism and savantism.[11] However, Rain Man has also been seen as dispelling a number of other misconceptions about autism and improving public awareness of the failure of many agencies to accommodate autistic people and make use of the abilities they do have, regardless of whether they are savant skills.[12]

[edit] References

  1. ^ a b c Barry Morrow's audio commentary for Rain Man from the DVD release.
  2. ^ a b c Rain Man at the Internet Movie Database
  3. ^ a b Bass' audio commentary for Rain Man from the DVD release.
  4. ^ a b Rain Man, Variety, December 14, 1988
  5. ^ "Rain Man (1988)". Rotten Tomatoes. http://www.rottentomatoes.com/m/rain_man/. Retrieved July 4, 2010. 
  6. ^ a b Brotherly Love, of Sorts, a December 1988 review from The New York Times
  7. ^ Kael, Pauline. Rain Man at Metacritic, The New Yorker (Feb. 1989)
  8. ^ "Weekend Box Office: December 16–18, 1988". Box Office Mojo. http://boxofficemojo.com/weekend/chart/?yr=1988&wknd=51&p=.htm. 
  9. ^ "Weekend Box Office: December 30–January 2, 1988". Box Office Mojo. http://boxofficemojo.com/weekend/chart/?yr=1988&wknd=53a&p=.htm. 
  10. ^ Rain Man at Box Office Mojo
  11. ^ Draaisma D (2009). "Stereotypes of autism". Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 364 (1522): 1475–80. doi:10.1098/rstb.2008.0324. PMID 19528033. 
  12. ^ Darold Treffert. "Rain Man, the Movie/Rain Man, Real Life". http://www.wisconsinmedicalsociety.org/savant_syndrome/savant_articles/rain_man. 

[edit] External links

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HISTORIA10: SAVANTS. KIM PEEK. Kim Peek (Salt Lake City, 11 de noviembre de 1951 — Salt Lake City, 19 de diciembre de 2009) fue el más famoso y prodigioso de los "savant".

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Kim Peek

De Wikipedia, la enciclopedia libre
Kim Peek
Peek1.jpg
Nacimiento11 de noviembre de 1951
Salt Lake City, Estados Unidos
Fallecimiento19 de diciembre de 2009 (58 años)
Salt Lake City, Estados Unidos
Causa de la muerteAtaque al corazón
NacionalidadBandera de los Estados Unidos Estadounidense

Kim Peek (Salt Lake City, 11 de noviembre de 1951 — Salt Lake City, 19 de diciembre de 2009) fue el más famoso y prodigioso de los "savant".

Fue una persona que sorprendió al mundo entero con sus asombrosas capacidades intelectuales, a pesar de su incapacidad para realizar las tareas más básicas. El personaje que interpretó Dustin Hoffman en la película Rain Man está inspirado en él.

Contenido

[ocultar]

[editar] Habilidades como 'savant'

Se denomina 'savant' —término francés para virtuosos de las artes— a aquellas personas que presentan discapacidades físicas, mentales o motrices pero presentan unas increíbles habilidades para retener información o hacer cálculos complejos.

Kim Peek nació con macrocefalia, un daño permanente del cerebelo y con agenesia de cuerpo calloso, el manojo de nervios que conecta ambos hemisferios del cerebro, al igual que los conectores secundarios. Se especula que esta circunstancia pudo ser la causa de su increíble memoria que le valió el sobrenombre de 'Kimputer', pese a contar con un cociente intelectual de apenas 73. No fue autista.

Peek recordaba el 98% de los 12.000 libros que había leído, leía dos páginas en ocho segundos (usaba cada ojo para leer una página distinta) y apenas tardaba una hora en memorizar un libro, reteniendo de un modo preciso e instantáneo información sobre datos históricos, geografía, literatura o cualquier tema. Su capacidad de almacenar información era virtualmente ilimitada. No entendía lo que retenía porque no necesitaba recordarlo ni pensarlo, simplemente estaba ahí.

Fue objeto de varios estudios en la Sociedad Médica de Wisconsin. Por sí mismo apenas podía abrocharse la camisa y era una persona dependiente; no tuvo noción de los datos que almacenaba ni realizar una interpretación de un poema o una conclusión de un libro, a pesar de memorizarlo por completo; no tenía ningún tipo de aptitud musical (debido a sus limitadas capacidades motrices) pero era capaz de escuchar cualquier canción y tocarla en un piano y era capaz de reconocer el autor de miles de piezas musicales escuchando pocos segundos.

En el 2004 la NASA examinó a Peek con una serie de exámenes mientras se le grababa mediante tomografía y resonancia magnética para intentar recrear una visión tridimensional de la estructura de su cerebro. Fue la primera tentativa no-invasiva mediante el uso de tecnología moderna para intentar descubrir por qué una persona con un cerebro discapacitado es capaz de hacer tales cosas, ya que se supone que existe esa capacidad latente en cualquier cerebro.

[editar] Relaciones humanas

A diferencia de otros savants, Kim había mostrado una gran progresión social, relacionándose con gente desconocida por medio de sus demostraciones. Tenía un calendario exacto de 10.000 años en la cabeza con lo cual era fácil para él decirle a cualquier persona tras oír su fecha de nacimiento qué día de la semana nació y cuándo se jubilaría; igualmente respondía a cualquier cálculo matemático. Todo aquello despertaba la admiración de cuantos le escuchaban.

Peek fue entrevistado en televisión a raíz de la película Rain Man, cuyo guión fue escrito por Barry Morrow, quien tras conocerle personalmente escribió el guión dirigido por Barry Levinson.

[editar] Muerte

El 19 de diciembre de 2009, Peek falleció debido a un ataque al corazón.[1] [2]

[editar] Referencias

  1. ↑ Mega-savant Kim Peek dies
  2. ↑ ELPAÍS.com (22/12/2009). «Muere el hombre que inspiró la película de 'Rain Man'».

[editar] Enlaces externos

Obtenido de "http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kim_Peek"
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HISTORIA10: SAVANTS. El síndrome del sabio o síndrome del savant, también conocido como savantismo, es un diagnóstico médico no reconocido, pero el investigador Darold Treffert lo define como un estado patológico según el cual algunas personas con desordenes mentales como el autismo, pese a sus discapacidades físicas, mentales o motrices, poseen una sorprendente habilidad o habilidades mentales específicas. Estos individuos son denominados savants (sabios), término francés utilizado para designar a los virtuosos de las artes. Treffert afirma que esta situación puede ser genética, pero que también puede ser adquirida. Se ha demostrado que las capacidades de algunos savants han sido accionadas por una lesión cerebral, antes estaban presentes pero no se ponían de manifiesto. Este síndrome fue descrito por primera vez en 1978 en artículo de la revista Psychology Today.

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Síndrome del sabio

De Wikipedia, la enciclopedia libre

El síndrome del sabio o síndrome del savant, también conocido como savantismo, es un diagnóstico médico no reconocido, pero el investigador Darold Treffert lo define como un estado patológico según el cual algunas personas con desordenes mentales como el autismo, pese a sus discapacidades físicas, mentales o motrices, poseen una sorprendente habilidad o habilidades mentales específicas. Estos individuos son denominados savants (sabios), término francés utilizado para designar a los virtuosos de las artes. Treffert afirma que esta situación puede ser genética, pero que también puede ser adquirida. Se ha demostrado que las capacidades de algunos savants han sido accionadas por una lesión cerebral, antes estaban presentes pero no se ponían de manifiesto. Este síndrome fue descrito por primera vez en 1978 en artículo de la revista Psychology Today.

Según Treffert, la mitad de personas con el síndrome del sabio son autistas, mientras que la otra mitad tiene otra incapacidad relacionada con el desarrollo, retraso mental, lesión cerebral o enfermedad mental. Él afirma que “… no todas las personas autistas padecen el síndrome del sabio al igual que no todas las personas con el síndrome del sabio tienen desorden autístico”. Otros investigadores indican que los rasgos y las habilidades autísticos del sabio pueden estar ligados.

Aunque aún es más raro que la condición del savant en sí misma, algunos savants no tienen ninguna anormalidad evidente con excepción de sus capacidades únicas. En la actualidad, existen aproximadamente 50 personas en el mundo que han sido diagnosticadas con este síndrome.[1]

Contenido

[ocultar]

[editar] Características

De acuerdo con Treffert, si existe una característica común que describe a los savants es su memoria prodigiosa, que es de un tipo especial.[2] Es una memoria que él define como “muy profunda, pero excesivamente estrecha”. Estrecha en el sentido de que pueden recordar pero tienen dificultad a la hora de utilizar su memoria.

En general, y teniendo en cuenta el enorme repertorio de conocimientos del ser humano, es curioso el hecho de que las habilidades más usuales de los savant se centren en 4 categorías principales:

  • Arte (música, pintura y escultura): Se caracterizan por ser grandes intérpretes musicales, especialmente al piano, pintores y escultores. Suelen tener habilidades innatas para comprender e interpretar la música.
  • Cálculo de fechas: Algunos savant pueden memorizar calendarios enteros y recordar datos referentes a cada uno de esos días.
  • Cálculo matemático: Capacidad para la realización de complejos cálculos matemáticos mentalmente de forma instantánea y con gran precisión, como por ejemplo el cálculo de números primos o la realización de divisiones con 100 decimales mentalmente.
  • Habilidades mecánicas y espaciales: Capacidad para medir distancias casi exactas sin la ayuda de instrumentos, construcción de detalladas maquetas, memorización de mapas y direcciones...

Existen además otra serie de habilidades, más inusuales y en general más particulares del individuo, como facilidad para el aprendizaje de múltiples idiomas, fuerte agudización de los sentidos, perfecta apreciación del paso del tiempo sin necesidad de relojes, etc.

[editar] Teorías sobre el síndrome del sabio

Actualmente, no existe ninguna teoría médica capaz de explicar la razón de esta curiosa condición humana, no al menos en su totalidad. Aunque algunos savants han sufrido lesiones cerebrales, en otros no es posible encontrar rastro alguno de “anormalidad”, no al menos mediante las herramientas de diagnóstico actuales. De hecho, ciertos neurólogos apoyan la tesis de que los savant tal vez “compartan” con los superdotados ciertos subprocesos mentales, pertenecientes a un nivel específico del cerebro. En cualquier caso, y de una manera u otra, este síndrome ha despertado la fascinación de muchas personas a lo largo de su existencia, y no es para menos, ya que muestra el enorme potencial que nuestro cerebro oculta en su interior (aún a costa de otros efectos no deseados).

Recientemente se ha descubierto que parte de sus asombrosas habilidades son gracias a que llevan a cabo los procesos mentales con hemisferios cerebrales distintos a los que una persona promedio utiliza para procesar la información.

[editar] Casuística

A juzgar por Treffert:

  • Uno de cada diez autistas tienen las habilidades de un savant.
  • El 50% de los savants son autistas; el otro 50% tiene otra incapacidad relacionada con el desarrollo, retraso mental, lesión cerebral o enfermedad mental.
  • Los varones savants superan seis veces en número a las mujeres savants.

[editar] Savant famosos

Un savant prodigioso es aquel cuyo nivel de habilidades le permite ser clasificado como prodigio, o talento excepcional, incluso en ausencia de una discapacidad cognitiva. Los savants prodigiosos son aquellos individuos cuyas habilidades serían consideradas extraordinarias incluso en una persona sin ningún tipo de limitación o diagnostico de incapacidad especiales. El rasgo más común de estos savants son sus aparentemente ilimitadas habilidades nemotécnicas, algunos incluso poseen una memoria eidética. De hecho, los savants prodigiosos son extremadamente raros, se han sido registrado menos de un centenar de casos en un siglo de investigación sobre la materia. Darold Treffert, la principal autoridad que estudia este síndrome, ha estimado que existen menos de cincuenta individuos que padecen este síndrome hoy en día. En la pagina web de la Wisconsin Medical Society aparecen 29 personas con el síndrome.[3] Treffert es el ex-presidente de dicha sociedad.

Los siguientes no son savants pero reunen algunas de sus características:

  • Kim Peek (Salt Lake City, 11 de noviembre, 1951 — Salt Lake City, 19 de diciembre, 2009[4] ). Kim era capaz de leer extraordinariamente rápido. Podía leer simultáneamente dos páginas de un libro en tan solo 8 segundos, usando cada ojo para leer una página distinta. Kim recordaba el 98% de los 12.000 libros que había leído a lo largo de su vida. De modo, que consiguió adquirir una enorme cantidad de conocimiento que abarcaba distintos ámbitos: desde la geografía hasta la literatura, pasando por música, historia, filosofía... Kim era además un GPS humano. Conocía de memoria todos los mapas de EEUU, podía decirte exactamente cómo llegar de una ciudad a otra explicando detalladamente que carreteras y calles debes tomar.

Los siguientes son artistas autistas con un talento superior a la media en sus campos:

[editar] El síndrome del sabio en la cultura popular

  • En el decimoquinto capítulo de la tercera temporada de la serie de televisión House ("Medio lelo") el paciente al que tratan es un savant con un gran talento para tocar el piano.
  • En la serie FlashForward los savants son utilizados por el Dr. Dyson Frost (D. Gibbons) en sus experimentos para que absorban la mayor cantidad de información durante sus visiones del futuro.

[editar] Véase también

[editar] Referencias

  1. ↑ Redacción. «Aproximadamente 50 personas en el mundo padecen esta condición: Síndrome del sabio, la genialidad oculta». Consultado el 23/5/2009. «Cifra estimada.».
  2. ↑ Güido Riggio Pou (27 de octubre de 2008). «Los filtros cerebrales».
  3. ↑ unknown. «Savant profiles». Wisconsin Medical Society. Consultado el 09-09-2008.
  4. ↑ Mega-savant Kim Peek dies
  5. ↑ Hugo Víctor Ramírez Villarroel. «Aprendiendo una lengua».
  6. ↑ Treffert, Darold. «Alonzo Clemons - Genius Among Us». Wisconsin Medical Society. Consultado el 07-11-2007.
  7. ↑ Treffert, Darold. «Tony DeBlois - A Prodigious Musical Savant». Wisconsin Medical Society. Consultado el 07-11-2007.
  8. ↑ Treffert, Darold A. and Gregory L. Wallace (2003). «Islands of Genius» (PDF). Scientific American, Inc. Consultado el 08-11-2007.
  9. ↑ Jonathan Lerman:
  10. ↑ Treffert, Darold. «Thristan "Tum-Tum" Mendoza - A Child Prodigy Marimbist With Autism from the Philippines». Wisconsin Medical Society. Consultado el 07-11-2007.
  11. ↑ Derek Paravicini:
  12. ↑ James Henry Pullen:
  13. ↑ Mauricio-José Schwarz. «Y los savants nos ayudan a comprendernos».
  14. ↑ Treffert, Darold. «Henriett Seth F. - Rain Girl». Wisconsin Medical Society. Consultado el 07-11-2007.
  15. ↑ ELMUNDO.ES. «Así dibujó la capital la 'cámara humana'».
  16. ↑ El País. «Los trazos de la buena memoria».
  17. ↑ La Nación. «Stephen el memorioso».
  18. ↑ Tracey Eagan (06-05-2009). «Twin Savants Fixated on Dick Clark». Jezebel. Consultado el 19-07-2009.
  19. ↑ Ileana Lotersztain. «Los “idiotas sabios”».

[editar] Enlaces externos

Obtenido de "http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%ADndrome_del_sabio"
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HISTORIA10: Documental de National Geographic sobre la inteligencia humana. Esta sección trata sobre un savant con la sorprendente capacidad de calcular fechas en calendarios de forma casi instantánea.

petalofucsia - - Historia10

 

Documental de National Geographic sobre la inteligencia humana. Esta sección trata sobre un savant con la sorprendente capacidad de calcular fechas en calendarios de forma casi instantánea.

Obtenido de http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K5-o4ceD0lw&feature=related

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HISTORIA10: ¿QUÉ PASA SI ORDENAMOS LOS NOMBRES DE ACUERDO CON LAS PROGRESIONES?. Una sucesión geométrica está constituida por una secuencia de elementos en la que cada uno de ellos se obtiene multiplicando el anterior por una constante denominada razón o factor de la progresión. Se suele reservar el término progresión cuando la secuencia tiene una cantidad finita de términos mientras que se usa sucesión cuando hay una cantidad infinita de términos, si bien, esta distinción no es estricta.

petalofucsia - - Historia10

Progresión geométrica

De Wikipedia, la enciclopedia libre

Una sucesión geométrica está constituida por una secuencia de elementos en la que cada uno de ellos se obtiene multiplicando el anterior por una constante denominada razón o factor de la progresión. Se suele reservar el término progresión cuando la secuencia tiene una cantidad finita de términos mientras que se usa sucesión cuando hay una cantidad infinita de términos, si bien, esta distinción no es estricta.

Así, 5, 15, 45, 135, 405,..., es una progresión geométrica con razón igual a 3, porque:

15 = 5 × 345 = 15 × 3135 = 45 × 3405 = 135 × 3

y así sucesivamente.

Aunque es más fácil aplicando la fórmula:

a_n = {a_m}{r^{(n-m)}},

Siendo a_n, el término en cuestión, a_m, el primer término y r, la razón:

a_n = {a_1}{r^{(n-1)}},

Así quedaría si queremos saber el 6º término de nuestra progresión

a_6 = {5}({3^{(6-1)}}),a_6 = {5}({3^5}),a_6 = {5}(243),a_6= 1215,

 

Contenido

[ocultar]

[editar] Ejemplos de progresiones geométricas

  • La progresión 1, 2 ,4 ,8 ,16, es una progresión geométrica cuya razón vale 2, al igual que 5, 10, 20, 40.
  • La razón no necesariamente tiene que ser un número entero. Así, 12, 3, 0.75, 0.1875 es una progresión geométrica con razón 1/4.
  • La razón tampoco tiene porqué ser positiva. De este modo la progresión 3, -6, 12, -24 tiene razón -2. Este tipo de progresiones es un ejemplo de progresión alternante porque los signos alternan entre positivo y negativo.
  • Cuando la razón es igual a 1 se obtiene una progresión constante: 7, 7, 7, 7
  • Un caso especial es cuando la razón es igual a cero, por ejemplo: 4, 0, 0, 0. Existen ciertas referencias que no consideran este caso como progresión y piden explícitamente que r ne 0 en la definición.

[editar] Suma de términos de una progresión geométrica

[editar] Suma de los primeros n términos de una progresión geométrica

Se denomina como Sn a la suma de n términos consecutivos de una progresión geométrica:

Sn = a1 + a2 + ... + an-1 + an

Si se quiere obtener una fórmula para calcular de una manera rápida dicha suma, se multiplica ambos miembros de la igualdad por la razón de la progresión r.

S_n r = (a_1 + a_2 + ... + a_{n-1} + a_n) r Rightarrow S_n r = a_1 r + a_2 r + ... + a_{n-1} r + a_n r

Si se tiene en cuenta que al multiplicar un término de una progresión geométrica por la razón se obtiene el término siguiente de esa progresión,

Sn r = a2 + a3 + ... + an + an r

Si se procede a restar de esta igualdad la primera:

Sn r = a2 + a3 + ... + an + an rSn = a1 + a2 + ... + an-1 + an_______________________________Sn r - Sn = - a1 + an r

o lo que es lo mismo,

Sn ( r - 1 ) = an r - a1

Si se despeja Sn,

S_n = cfrac { a_n r - a_1 } { r - 1 }

De esta manera se obtiene la suma de los n términos de una progresión geométrica cuando se conoce el primer y el último término de la misma. Si se quiere simplificar la fórmula, se puede expresar el término general de la progresión an como

an = a1 rn-1

Así, al sustituirlo en la fórmula anterior se tiene lo siguiente:

S_n = cfrac { a_1 r^{n-1} r - a_1 } { r - 1 } = cfrac { a_1 r^n - a_1 } { r - 1 } = cfrac { a_1 ( r^n - 1 ) } { r - 1 }

con lo que se obtiene la siguiente igualdad:

S_n = a_1 cfrac { r^n - 1 } { r - 1 }

Con esta fórmula se puede obtener la suma de n términos consecutivos de una progresión geométrica con sólo saber el primer término a sumar y la razón de la progresión.

Si queremos calcular el resultado de una suma de n términos consecutivos, pero sin que empiece en cero, debemos utilizar la expresión:

sum_{k=m}^n ar^k=frac{a(r^{n+1}-r^m)}{r-1}.

[editar] Suma de términos infinitos de una progresión geométrica

Si el valor absoluto de la razón es menor que la unidad | r | < 1, la suma de los infinitos términos decrecientes de la progresión geométrica converge hacia un valor finito. En efecto, si | r | < 1, r^infty tiende hacia 0, de modo que:

S_infty = a_1 cfrac{r^infty - 1}{r - 1}=a_1 cfrac{0 - 1}{r - 1}=cfrac{a_1}{1 - r}

En definitiva, la suma de los infinitos términos de una progresión geométrica de razón inferior a la unidad se obtiene utilizando la siguiente fórmula:

S_infty = cfrac{a_1}{1 - r}

[editar] Véase también

Obtenido de "http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Progresi%C3%B3n_geom%C3%A9trica"
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